varna—all the four have been identified with specific stages in the order of creation in Tantras. (Also see note 12 in the next section on nada) 11. The primary meaning of varņa is colour. At the aural level varņa stands both for letter and syllable i.e. it is the primary unit of language. 12. 'This' śāstra or discipline means Sangītašāstra, the śāstra of music and tantra. The author has tried to combine the two here. Although in music nāda (tonal sound) predominates, yet varna (syllabic sound) cannot be totally excluded. Similarly, in language, varņa (syllabic sound) predominates, but nāda (tone) cannot be totally absent, because when a varņa is pronounced, its total aural form does embody the qualities or attributes of tone viz. pitch, loudness, timbre (of the producing medium) and duration. When varya and its matrix mātrkā is said to be the 'light of the world', the idea would be that sound is the origin of all manifest forms. This sound is a totality of varna and nāda, although only varņa is explicitly mentioned here. The author has thus established a common source of language and music and that source is the 'light of the world'. 13. The root suri means 'to sound'. 'Svara' is derived from this root; the seven groups of consonants beginning with 'K' are as follows - (1) kādi (2) cādi (3) țădi (4) tădi (5) pădi (6) yădi (7) śādi. Actually the total number of these groups is eight, when the group of vowels known as ādi is also included as the first one. Here it has been excluded because the context is that of the consonants being 'sounded' with the help or support of svaras (vowels), 14. Deśabhāṣā lit. means regional language. 'Bhāṣā' is conventionally used for the language of the common people. Laukika (classical) Sanskrit is called bhāṣā as compared to Vedic Sanskrit and regional languages have been known as bhāṣā as compared to Sanskrit. Here both Sanskrit and regional languages seem to be implied. 15. Although musical notes and vowels bear one and the same name svara, they are mutually distinct and this distinction has been rightly hinted at here, but it has not been made explicit. It will, however, be pertinent to mention here that the common word for vowel and musical note implies an inherent unity between the two which could thus be described. Both in language and music, it is the vowel and not the consonant that bears the pitch, duration etc. of a syllable. Patanjali in the bhāşya (commentary) on Pāṇini (Aṣtā I, 2.29) has discussed this point at length. The consonant vanishes immediately and if it is extended, this extension rests solely on the vowel. In music, the strokes on instruments are identified with consonants but their extension always rests on vowels combined with the consonants concerned. In voice also the pitch intervals are reproduced with the help of vowels that may or may not be combined with consonants. It is the vowel that carries the pitch, loudness etc. of a musical note, but the same is reflected in the consonant like the 'red flower being reflected in the floor made of crystal.' (Patanjali)

As for the distinction between vowel and musical note, Abhinavagupta has made a remarkable contribution in the conception of the autonomy of musical note³; this will be dealt with under the definition of svara in our text. 16. In language vyañjana, consonant ( lit. the act or instrument of mani- festation ) is the phonetic unit that brings about specificity, but it can be pronounced only with the help of vowel, otherwise it is impotent or ineffective. Hence svara has been identified here with the śakti (supreme energy or power) that lends the state of Siva to vyanjana (cf. Gandharva Tantra, IX. 17 and Garland of Letters, p. 260). The underlying idea is that Siva obtains His state only from the association with Sakti, otherwise it is like Sava (a dead body). Sakti is identified with ikāra ( the vowel 'i' ). ( cf. citation from Saktikāgama in Sabdakalpadruma Pt. V, p. 5) 17. Svarūpa (lit. own form) means the phonetic form of word and sentence without reference to meaning. The whole world being a manifestation of dhvani (sound), the very form of word and sentence without reference to meaning, delineates or 'paints' the world because this form itself is a stage of manifestation that in itself is the basis of further manifestation. 18. The sentence is the basic semantic unit, the 'word' becomes meaningful when it forms part of a sentence. This is the point of view of grammar ( vyākaraņa ) which is mentioned here. 19. Pada is defined by Pāṇini (Aṣṭā I, 4.14) as that which combines the suffix sup or tin (nominal or verbal suffixes), it is not just a combination of syllables. 20, 21. Kāraka is not co-extensive with 'case'. It is instrumental in bringing about the action denoted by verb (Monier Williams), Kāraka is the hetu or nimitta (cause) of kriyā (action). There are six Kārakas according to Pāņini, viz. kartṛ, karman, karaṇa, sampradāna, apādāna and adhikaraṇa. The sambandha (genitive case) is not accepted to be a Kāraka, because 'it ordinarily expresses the relation of two nouns to each other, but not the relation of a noun and a verb.' ( Monier Williams ) The sentence is formed with padas that have sup or tin suffixes combined with nouns and verbs respectively, standing, in turn, for kāraka and kriyā. 22. Mahāvākya has four primary connotations as follows - (a) An aggregation of sentences where the apprehension of the meaning of the individual components (sentences) leads to the apprehension of the total meaning of the aggregate, just as in the aggregate of five components in the nyāya-vākya used for inference. This is the view of nyāya. (b) An aggregate of sentences where one sentence is primary and the others are secondary. This is the view of Mimāmsā. (c) A sentence that expresses deep philosophical meaning. This is the view of Vedanta where sentences like tattvamasi (thou art That) aham brahmasmi (I am brahman ) etc. are accepted as mahā-vākyas. (d) A simple aggregate of sentences as in Rāmāyaņa, Mahābhārata or any literary composition.